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家族企業之興業行為：探究忠僕型經理人、開創性導向以及新產品開發之關係
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3.2 Measures
Since scales for the constructs are available in the extant literature, existing measures
were used and adapted. All constructs were measured using Likert-type scales with a 6-point
response format anchored by “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” and were averaged. All
construct items and the associated alphas were greater than .65 (α > 0.65).
3.3 Independent Variables
Decision comprehensiveness
. This steward-like behavior was measured using three
items from the strategic management and decision-making literature, (see Talaulicar et al.,
2005) and the items were revised by Eddleston et al. (2010).
Participative governance
. Originally based on the works of Chrisman, Chua, and Litz
(2004) and Eddleston et al. (2010), which both articulated the measurements of participative
governance by focusing on the direct input of both the family and board of directors in
managing the strategic direction of the firm.
Long-term orientation
. The four items used to assess long-term orientation were
inspired by Eddleston et al. (2010). The items were first created by Zellweger (2007), whose
research focused on the impact of an increased time horizon on investment possibilities.
3.4 Dependent, Mediating and Moderating Variables
Exploration and exploitation
. We use He and Wong’s (2004) items to measure
exploration and exploitation activities. Because exploration versus exploitation is a general
and broad concept, previous studies have suggested a diverse range of operationalizations,
such as the radicalness of innovation (Bierly and Chakrabarti, 1996), patent search scope and
depth (Katila and Ahuja, 2002), the degree to which search behavior is both technological
and organizational boundary spanning (Rosenkopf and Nerkar, 2001), and a composite
measurement of the newness of business development projects (McGrath, 2001). Following
He and Wong (2004), we see exploration and exploitation as two distinct dimensions of
behavior, rather than as two ends of a unidimensional scale. We use six Likert-scale items to
measure how firms divide attention and resources between innovation activities with
explorative versus exploitative objectives in the last three years.
New product development
. Managers were asked to estimate how many new products,
services, or technologies their firm had developed in the past three years as a result of the
entrepreneurial behavior (Yli-Renko, Autio, and Sapienza, 2001).