臺大管理論叢 NTU Management Review VOL.29 NO.3

The Mediating Effect of Glass Ceiling Beliefs in the Relationship between Women’s Personality Traits and Their Subjective Career Success 198 within the organization (Powell, 2012). Past research has elaborated four different criteria that must be met to conclude that a glass ceiling exists in an organization (Cotter, Hermsen, Ovadia, and Vanneman, 2001). First, the definition of glass ceiling must recognize that it reflects a job inequality that is unexplained by the person’s past qualifications and achievements (Cotter et al., 2001). Second, the glass ceiling is gender or racial inequality. Third, it is gender or racial inequality in advancement to higher levels, such that the gender gap grows as one moves to the top hierarchical order (Cotter et al., 2001). Fourth, the glass ceiling is an inequality that will increase throughout a person’s career (Cotter et al., 2001). The criteria mentioned above are ideal in terms of confirmation of the glass ceiling effect in any organization. Both objective and subjective assessments of the glass ceiling are needed in an organization based on the criteria mentioned above. Although there is vast research on the glass ceiling effect around the world, a deeper understanding of this phenomenon is still important to eliminate it from organizations completely. Past researchers have observed that the flow of women in organizations is steady and increasing (Goldman, 1973). However, structural obstacles, including organizational practices and policies, and a difference in behavior in organizational culture have been observed in organizations (Sonnert and Holton, 1996). Organizations have to accept the need for women, and both public and private sectors cannot deny their existence (Goldman, 1973). Corporate culture also plays an important role in promoting social norms and traditions regarding male dominance affecting the female workforce (Sonnert and Holton, 1996). The ambition and desire of women to reach top positions are hindered by the insufficient exposure for their career building in terms of guidance, training, and experience (Sonnert and Holton, 1996). CEOs of big companies have tried to facilitate the career growth of women in their organizations, which is commendable, but a long-term solution to end glass ceilings is not present in this approach (Ragins, Townsend, and Mattis, 1998). The introduction of the Glass Ceiling Commission in 1991 was a positive step that highlighted the fact that glass ceilings are the main hurdle for women to reach top management positions and suggested active solutions to break the glass ceiling (Cooper Jackson, 2001). The Glass Ceiling Commission was a good step for the survival of talented women in organizations and provided valuable solutions to cope with the glass ceiling effect (Cooper Jackson, 2001).